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behavior program Cybernetics and the birth of Artificial Intelligence

Cybernetics In our day should not be seen either as a science, nor as a discipline, but as a movement of ideas, tried to break with the narrow expertise of each discipline. Cyber \u200b\u200bmovement allowed scientists of many different branches are grouped in groups of research and for the first time, mathematicians, physiologists and specialists in electronics to be integrated into multidisciplinary teams. Its creator, Norbert Wiener after years working on mathematical theories and formulas to add some great mathematical apparatus, began working on technical issues such as control of anti-aircraft artillery fire and more efficient transmission of coded messages through communications systems. Wrote a book on cybernetics and control in animals and machines became a success. The stage was set for a new revolution in science.

Cybernetics is based on the study of machines (artificial objects) and its application, which promoted a new scientific revolution based on the interaction of humans with machines at a pace never before seen technological growth and character unpredictable. This rate is already being felt and we can say, for example, that a man of the sixteenth century could very well have lived without many surprises in the seventeenth century instead one of the nineteenth century would have great trouble adapting to XX and everything indicates that this acceleration will continue to increase, which will make old age a person has to live in a world completely different from your childhood.

With cybernetics machine concept has changed over the years. After those first mechanical machines which sought to completely or partially replace physical labor of man and animals, have followed others, whose aim is the mechanization of mental labor. Today the machines perform functions that were previously considered characteristic of the human intellect. But perhaps the most important contribution of cybernetics was founded on analogies, hence the feature exogenous science, which is given by the interaction with other branches of knowledge and internal assimilation, but mainly by the proposed general theories that explain phenomena of the other sciences. For example, cybernetics has preferred to rely on model theory, which places more emphasis on the functional representation of bodies in its structure in the vertical or hierarchical. This, coupled with the search for analogies between the phenomena and not to the reduction of one another led her to become a scientific ideology for understanding the world.




Another contribution of cybernetics, is the use of mathematical apparatus, which until then was used almost exclusively as physics and cybernetics in turn was a common discipline to several research areas, which resulted in branches such as psychology, sociology and biology , could somehow formalize their theories, and even went so far as methods of testing were provided through the creation of machinery for study behaviors, reactions, reflexes, learning, etc.
cyber
When trying to model the structure of an object rather than the structure they had in mind was the reproduction of his work on another structure and is aimed for the artificial object model or exhibit a behavior similar to the original. I say similar because in reality the behavior shown by the models has always been subject to the interpretation of the researcher. These modeling efforts led researchers to build machines with behavior such as turtles and foxes Grey Walter Albert Ducrocq, which were nothing more than small machines with movement and is guided by the light, others are guided by sound or had some form of radar. But most interesting was the interpretation that was given to the behavior of these ciberanimalitos. For Grey Walter turtles could move from a phlegmatic another irascible behavior. To Ducrocq, its foxes were able to express feelings of affection between them. I know this to rationalists may seem childish, but is not it interesting if not true that human beings continue using your imagination to interpret the phenomena and to keep alive in these times of scientific determinism, its ability to "surprise ?.



Today nobody talks about emotional experiences with turtles, foxes, mice ... The ideas were very simple: any device could show some form of human behavior. That was the dream of the cyber-Play life in all its manifestations, not only intelligence, as claimed in these times of Artificial Intelligence. And it did not base the Cybernetics his research on the basis that the machine would replace the man, who always saw both as systems with functional analogies, that while they had great differences because agencies own organizational structure and possessed a In turn, many similarities, hence the cyber gave him, ever greater emphasis on the influence of structure on the mind, but both viewed as a system capable of functioning as a whole.

live in a world of both social and spiritual crisis, and the desperate man turns his eyes to science and it expects the solution to major problems that overwhelm and cyber ideology sees a new approach. Here are some of the problems are returning: The education system, health (the prosthesis), death, creativity, consumer goods production, development, understanding the human mind, happiness, evolution ( Convergence men and machines), new forms of social organization (posthumanity), human enhancement (man machine connection)





is why cybernetics to over the years has been transformed into one of the ideologies of most influential science, and like Physics and Biology, engenders great promise and for many it becomes the new savior of the world because it has provided one of the richest and most powerful metaphors: the so-called computer metaphor or cybernetics, offering a new vision of society and opens the door to a post-industrial era. Today there are many who think that the machine will replace the man, or those who believe that the human mind can be simulated by a computer, or who dream of creating artificial life.


Birth of Artificial Intelligence:

Artificial Intelligence (AI) was founded at a congress held in 1956, when a group of scientists gathered at Dartmouth College, convened by the researcher John McCarthy of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) discussed about the potential of computers to simulate human intelligence and laid the groundwork for research in AI. It took four of which later greatly influence the development of AI, McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Allen Newell and Herbert Simon.

The IA has emerged as a reaction to Cybernetics. The pioneers of the new research approach, we propose the creation of a science in itself, based on their own laws, and raised as a main goal the development of computer programs capable of exhibiting intelligent behavior. Many researchers were convinced that the complicated processes that make up the intelligence would be unpacked, which could be developed that represent mathematical models and computers could emulate these processes effectively.

AI cyber continued attempts to formalize their theories and the creation of a mathematical apparatus itself. For the experiment suggested the use of computers as a laboratory in which to test the effectiveness of their hypotheses. But in his quest to become a science endogenous, not dependent on external laws, left the analogy as a method of research and inevitably had to resort to reductionism that in its fort was the attempt to reproduce the human mind into a computer.

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The prophecies of Ray Kurzweil

Ray Kurzweil, who with his book "The Age of Spiritual Machines" has shocked the scientific world with his prophecies. And he has differences of others that were theoretical or experimental scientists (I mean who do not develop practical or commercial applications) and in many cases science fiction writers. Kurzweil is an eminently practical science and was the creator of some mills as Optical Character Recognition (OCR; the current "TextBridge" Xerox is based on its patent), computer interface devices designed for blind and deaf, and such programs as the Kurzweil250 musical composition. Besides having received eight honorary doctorates, the post of advisor of two presidents and the award for the Best Inventor of the Year (Best Inventor Award, 1988),

reductionism is always in the mind of every scientist and Ai takes the idea of Reverse engineering and applies it to the processes of the mind. He says: A computer is faster than the human brain in some things, but the trick is to have the richness, subtlety and depth of our thinking. To achieve this will be key intelligence software, based on reverse engineering, copying the human brain works. Our brain circuits are dimensional and are based on a very complex connections. Scanning the brain can create a replica and artificial three-dimensional circuits using nanotubes (microscopic tubes) we can emulate their performance and create an advanced artificial intelligence. The American professor Andreas Nowatzyk already working on a project to copy the brain of a mouse. It is a first step in what will come next.

is also the one that highlights the possibilities of technology and repeats with Vingen that sees no limits to technological development. The technology represents a break with the slow biological evolution and entry into a faster process. Many scientists have a perspective Linear and see the future as a carbon copy of last retouched. That is a mistake. We are in an exponential growth phase in which a confluence of information technology, biotechnology, quantum physics, nanotechnology ... This century will equal 20,000 years of linear development.

Kurzweil believes that one should not classify the development of computers with the current state of the PC and says computer technology the situation is far from static. Today computers are emerging with a capacity of twenty or thirty years ago was considered impossible and can not forget that in 1997, a computer beat Kasparov, at least in chess. There were so many comments that were much more difficult human behaviors to imitate the course of chess. It's true. In many fields, for example, writing a book on computer-the computer capacity is still small. But as computers continue to purchase capacity at a rate of exponential rate, we will occur in such other fields as well as to Kasparov in chess.

As Minsky is unhappy with his brain and finds that the neurons, although they are wonderful creations, they do not have built as they are, since much of its complexity is dedicated to maintaining their own life processes, not their ability to manage information. Y coincides with other cyber punk, in which neurons are extremely slow, the electronics are at least a million times faster.

Also shown are dissatisfied with your body what it says: The intelligence is the ability to solve problems with the help of limited resources, including time. The problems we solve are often related to our body to protect, feed, clothe, meet their needs and desires. Spend much of our thinking to our body: a disembodied human intelligence quickly become depressed.

To which add: Thanks to nanotechnology, we placed tiny robots in the brain to improve capacity. Build biological entities with copies of the human brain and have people with thousands of microscopic robots in the brain, increasing their ability to think and live in virtual reality. And hopes that 2030 is the human brain can send billions of nanobots that will communicate wirelessly with tens of millions of different points in the brain. In this way we combine our biological intelligence with non-biological. End up looking completely non-biological entities, with copies of human brains derived from reverse engineering and biological human beings whose intelligence will have been improved thanks to the billions of nanobots that will have on the brain and also may exist in virtual reality. At that point, we can not distinguish between humans and machines.

Kurzweil is the most technologically of all, places great emphasis on nanotechnology and unlike Minsky's not feasible to think in 100 years, he considered came in 2020. Believes that the key application of nanotechnology in 20 years, will be the nanorobots or nanobots. Within our bodies and brains, the nanobots will allow us to extend the life destroying pathogens and cancer cells, repairing DNA errors, destroying toxins and waste, and reversing the aging process. The nanobots are robots based on computer small enough to travel through our circulatory system.
also hopes that nanotechnology will lead us beyond the limits of biology to improve our physical and mental capabilities by factors of many thousands, even millions, and eventually replace our fragile bodies "version 1.0" for a vastly improved version 2.0.

Among its many important predictions are scanning the brain and then install it on other non-biological, and achieve total immersion virtual. And he thinks that virtual reality environments integrate all the senses at the same time be able to improve the intelligence may be think faster, more complex thought and download the knowledge, and dreams of these virtual reality environments between 2030 and 2040 to compete with real environments and according to him, non-biological entities can have human-like bodies and Furthermore, thanks to nanotechnology, may also have them in reality

And consider as well as transhumanism (which we'll talk later.) that humanity is not the end of evolution but the beginning. To which I say:

"We have seen the drama of evolution as a billion years that led inexorably to its grandest creation: human intelligence. The emergence in the early twenty-first century, a new form of intelligence on Earth that compete with human intelligence and ultimately significantly exceed, will be a more important than any that have shaped human history. No less important than the creation of intelligence that created it, and will have profound implications for all aspects of human endeavor that, even in the nature of work, human learning, government, war, art and the concept of ourselves ... What we are discussing is in my opinion the next stage of evolution through the merger between humanity and technology. "

Now let's see what they consist of his prophecies:

2009
A home computer performs one trillion calculations per second. Practically, no cables are used, although there are still keyboards. The appearance of high-resolution PC has changed. Now they are everywhere, can be embedded in clothing, jewelry, or have the size of a small thick book. The texts are usually generated using natural language recognition. Routine commercial transactions are conducted largely between a human and a virtual personality. Often the virtual character looks human. The phone-translators are commonly used in many language pairs. The Bioengineered treatments for cancer and heart disease have reduced mortality from these causes. Neo-Luddite movement * is expanding. 2019


The home computer ($ 1,000) has reached the computing power of a human brain. Computers are now largely invisible. On the walls, on tables, chairs, clothing and jewelry, inserted into the body. Devices Virtual Reality (VR) in three dimensions are commonly used in communication. Most of the interaction with machines occurs through gestures or dialogue in natural language. Starts to apply the nano-engineering (mills one billionth of a meter, molecular context.) Many communication channels are installed shot automatic driving systems of vehicles. People begin to establish relationships with virtual personalities, using them to classmates, teachers, caregivers lovers. Virtual artists displayed in all branches of art. 2029


A computer system for $ 1,000 (the equivalent of one of the old home computers) have the computing / calculating a thousand human brains (2 * 1019 calculations per second - cps). Biological implants for the eyes and ears were used to establish a direct connection to the network global computer. Seamlessly. Of the retina to the network have been improved neural networks for broadband connect directly to the human brain. Are becoming available neural implants to enhance the visual and auditory perception, memory, reasoning and human calculation. Automated agents begin to learn on their own, and there is a certain amount of knowledge being created without human intervention. The vast majority of communications are not made between people but between one person and one machine. Can not clearly distinguish between the human and machine. Virtually no human work in industry, agriculture and transport. The most prevalent occupations are educational. A growing proportion of working time is devoted to education and learning. Basic living needs are covered for most of humanity. Life expectancy continues to increase, and now is around 120 years. A branch of psychology begins to investigate the consequences of this increased life span. Personalized drugs do not produce sequelae. They are designed according to each specific DNA, which has long been completely decoded. Begin the claims about legal rights of computers, and there is a debate about what constitutes "human." Machines claim to be conscious. No one is shocked by it. 2049


The common use of food nanoproducidos, with the correct nutritional composition and the same taste and texture of organically produced foods, leading to food availability no longer affected by limited natural resources, climate, or oxidative deterioration. Swarms of nanorobots are able to create visual-tactile projections-hearing people and objects in the physical world. It is no longer the physical world and virtual reality: there are several layers that intersect. It can act on several at a time (admittedly confusing) or taking several personalities in each layer of reality. The computers are designed entirely to themselves, this produces a greater acceleration in the development of digital intelligence. 2099


Human thought and artificial intelligence have merged, the companies controlled cyborg. Since there is no distinction between humans and computers. Many conscious entities do not have a permanent physical presence. Some claim to be human intelligence, even though their brain cells are not composed of carbon, but electronic and photonic equivalents. Effective legislation protects MOSH humans (with carbon neurons), devoid of neural implants. These early humans are unable to participate fully in dialogue between humans and processes in place, enhanced humans. Most of the information is transmitted using standard protocols of knowledge assimilated, that is, protocols that make that information is instantly understood. Languages \u200b\u200blike English and English are still used (especially among MOSH), but are part of a set of traditions and folklore to which demands respect and protection by the legislators. The picoingeniería (computing Pico meter level: one billionth of a meter, the environment of subatomic particles) has everyday applications. Is in developing femtoingeniería (milbillonésima scale underground level within quark.) computer capacity and calculation was estimated (using a variant of Moore's Law, which shall be considered possible until 2018), overall, to be accessible on the network for any entity that needs reaching a total of 1055 cps. Not to mention * quantum computing, which is usually extended, and whose power can not be estimated with the same methods (equivalent to 10355 cps). In this context, become meaningless concepts such as life expectancy. Mortality is a problem that can be considered the way it did a century earlier. Rather, there is a civil movement called "destroy-all-the-back." Any intelligent entity would required, before the end-voluntarily, with all your "files" to make a number of copies provided by law. The movement "destroy-all-the-back" calls for the possibility of extinction by destroying all copies of the mind or intelligence who wish an end. Immortality is what is becoming a problem ... For these prophecies

Kurzweil builds upon three laws:

Law of Time and Chaos in a process, the time interval between phenomena expands or contracts in proportion to the amount of existing chaos. This means that the relevant events grow with increasing order, or on the contrary, decrease with increasing chaos.

Increase Act Chaos: while chaos increases exponentially, the time slows down exponentially. That is, the time interval between events is widening ..

Law of Accelerated Returns: As order exponentially increases, time exponentially speeds up. That is, the interval between events is shortened as the time Moore's Law transcurre.La saying that the processing power of computers reaches double its capacity every two years would be an example of this trend.

Of these 3 laws Kurzweil draws the following conclusions: A process of evolution (life, or intelligence, say) is not a closed system. Then a evolutionary process is not satisfied the second law of thermodynamics, and therefore is able to create their own increasing order. In an evolutionary process, the order increases exponentially. Thus, according to the Law of Time and Chaos, time accelerates exponentially. Thus, the returns (valuable products of the process) accelerate. Final conclusion: the cosmic evolution (Universe closed system) slows down. Technological developments (open system) is accelerating. As evolution is subject to exponential rates, a gradual acceleration that will bring us in the near future so-called conscious machines. Implementation

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Prolog Language Features

programs:
For the implementation of Prolog programs, we propose the Ciao-Prolog, http://www.clip.dia.fi.upm.es/Software/Ciao/index.html # ciao
which has a shell that lets you run objectives.

The shell is an application that is included in the Ciao-Prolog with ciaosh name, and when you run the following message appears:

Ciao-Prolog 1.9 # 44: Mon Dec 30 16:47:15 2002
? -

The symbol? indicates the area where we can write the objectives to be executed.

For example:

Ciao-Prolog 1.9 # 44: Mon Dec 30 16:47:15 2002
? - F (X) = f (3).

X = 3?

To run the goal is to type dot, type ENTER.
Then the shel tell us whether the objective is successful or not and how the variables are instantiated. After which a question mark, which indicates that we can ask another solution by typing a semicolon (;) and pressing ENTER.

To upload a Ciao-Prolog program is as follows:


? - Consutl ('Programa.pl'). Yes


? -

Note that the filename is enclosed in single quotes. If you want to execute programs from a folder, such course would be:

? - Consutl ('c: / course / Programa.pl' .) Yes


? -


To exit the shell just type the predicate halt.
? - Halt.




2.2.1. Statement of facts and rules

As mentioned prolog-style rule is represented as:

Predicate (argument1, argument2 ,.....)

Pc (Arg, ..) if P1 (Arg .. ...) and P2 (Arg ,.....) and .......

But the correct syntax in Prolog would

Pc (Arg ,.....): - P1 (Arg ,......), P2 (Arg ,.....), P3 (Arg ,....)........
(which is the standard syntax is DEC 10 Prolog)

Some languages \u200b\u200balso accept the following syntax

Pc (Arg ,.....) if P1 (Arg ,....) and P2 (Arg ,....) and ..........

where each rule is called clause
And we will need to:
Pc - Pi
Pc: Head of the clause
Pi:
Main clause: - Neck of the clause. Sean

the following examples of facts or predicates:
parent (bob, luis).
parent (maria, luis).
parent (luis, jose).
parent (luis, ana).
parent (ana, Elena).

Now if you ask the Prolog compiler

? - Parent (bob, luis).
yes.

But if

? - parent (bob, sofia)


not be the answer, because there are no grounds to confirm the question.

If quiseramos know all the descendants of Louis

? - Parent (luis, X). Jose

X = X = Ana

Joseph and Ana are the descendants of Louis

Now let's define a rule or clause, so far we have only defined facts. Consider the rule
grandfather
grandfather (X, Y): - parent (X, Z), parent (Z, Y), male (X).
We took a predicate which was not defined (male), so we need to include new facts.
male (john).
male (Joseph).
male (luis).
female (ana).
female (maria).
women (Elena).
Now my knowledge base is composed of the rule grandfather and father made male and female.
And if you want to include the rule brother.
brother (X, Y): - parent (Z, X), parent (Z, Y), male (X). Rule
O mother, mother
(X, Y): - parent (X, Y), female (X).

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Prolog Primer: Declarative Programming

Introduction:
In the early 70's French language developed Alain Colmenuer Prolog also allows the development of applications in a declarative way.

PROLOG In general the automatic is a problem demonstrator, which uses a Knowledge Base in the form of deductive inference rules (Horn clauses), ie, its rules have resulted in a single action and the inferences obtained ned strictly logical (true or false), although it may seem a limitation, it does not is entirely fair, since PROLOG allows logic programming with probabilistic inference mechanisms, since it is searching trees with accumulation of evidence.

The PROLOG as a language of predicate calculus emerged, took the following ideas of logic for implementation.
1) A set of axioms or facts.
2) Rules of inference which are solved by resolution and unification.
3) The objective to demonstrate the conditions that will unify the rules. LISP
also took the treatment of the lists for the representation of the Prolog complejas.Aunque structures had their origin in mathematical logic was not an exact transposition, and is linked to the discussions that hold the key for years Artificial Intelligence researchers, which are divided into two groups, firstly Minsky who proposes to study the mechanisms of human thought and then simulate on the computer.
Minsky The most important are the concepts, that is the interpretation that can be given to each word depending on a given context.

The other group headed by Mac Carthy (author of LISP), states that mathematical logic is the characteristic feature for the representation of reasoning and its implementation in the computer, this group focuses on the formalization and structure of knowledge rather than the sense of them.

since ancient logic was conceived as a method of discovering the laws of thought, but these laws have always been restricted to scientific thought and especially the mathematician, leaving out common sense. This deficiency is supported by advocates logic, but they consider that logic is the only way possible to develop programs capable of showing intelligence.


Declarative programming Declarative programming
The main thing is not the instructions given in sequence (programming prescriptive), instead, the programmer focuses on describing the problem through rules and facts that operate independently and it is through a mechanism of inference rules are implemented.

declarative programming in the rules (knowledge base) is separated from the control program (inference machine).

declarative programming Example:
If and / or and / or .... then and / or ....

Where a serious fact: John is a student

The dog is white
Maria loves movies.

operational knowledge is procedural in nature. Conclusion If premises then

(There are also those who use: If conditions then Actions)


If P then C Where: P and C instructions would be in the presence of a procedural representation. P and C
facts or assertions would be in the presence of a declarative representation. Example

procedural representation
If A1 = B1 and A2> B2 then X: = A1 + A2
Where
A1 = B1 and A2> B2 are comparisons to take real ¨ value, "or" false ¨.


So we have:

If P1 and P2 then C

where P1 and P2 would be logical variables (true or false would)

Example
If declarative representation and then

This in any language would be as follows:
X: = "John is a student"
Y: = "John has 7 years"

if X = "John is a student" and Y = "John has 7 years" Then Z
: = "John is in the primary"

Let's see how to formalize the facts or assertions
Example: John has 10 years of age
1)
<10>
2) relation (concept, a concept that uses Prolog's ,....)
age (John, 10) is also used

3)


We will concentrate on the first two performances.

Example 1: The lion is a mammal

is-a (lion, mammal)

Example 2: Mary likes movies.
1)
2) likes (maria, film)

Lets look at some examples where the facts are combined in the form of rules or clauses:

if and then


Now we formalize the facts:


1) if and then
Or

(similar to Prolog)
2) lives (shark, in-water) if he (fish, in-water) and is-a (swordfish, shark)

prolog Note that the conclusion stands in front of the premises

representation in the form of rules: if premises

Conclusion What then would be interpreted as if
then Where
conclusion can be made by several facts or assertions.

Representation in Prolog: Conclusion
if
Premises and be interpreted as if

Where the conclusion is given by a single fact or assertion.

Exercise 1:
1. Mary likes tennis.
2. Tommy likes baseball.
3. José likes sports likes Thomas.

1.
2. S
3. If so

Similar to prolog:
1. likes (maria, tennis)
2. like (footage, baseball)
3. like (Jose, X) If you like (sockets, X)

Exercise 2:

Sophie wants a man who does not smoke.

if and

Similar to prolog:
want (sofia, X) if man (X) and do not smoke (X)

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Towards a new approach to Artificial Intelligence

From the AI \u200b\u200bcrisis has created new areas of research IA such as
-
Neural Networks - Genetic Algorithms
- Distributed Artificial Intelligence

all have in common a new approach: intelligence is a product of the association, combination or connection of simpler independent entities (agents, genes or neurons) , which may have some and intelligence or any product of their interaction, the system would present an intelligent behavior. Which brings us to a new paradigm based on the copy of emerging systems and evolutionary nature, which in some ways is a return to the Cybernetics, the first technical science inspired by nature.

Research in the RNA have been immersed in building robots that learn to discover hidden relationships in data that can simultaneously encode and store information in a similar way as it does to the brain.

The Neurocomputation used as a basis the brain metaphor, but does not pursue the objective of building machines absolutely biologically plausible, but the development of useful machines.

intellectual capacity depends on the collective action of neurons that carry out processes in series and in parallel using feedback and a molecular and laminar organization with high capacity for self-organization and cooperativity based on a hierarchical structure that allows local processing centralized in phases.

Artificial Life is the name given to a new discipline was born in the 80, who studies the natural life by recreating biological phenomena in the computer and other artificial means, in order not only of theoretical understanding of phenomena under study, but also to discover and make practical and useful applications of biological principles in computer technology and engineering, for example, mobile robots, spacecraft, medicine, nanotechnology, industrial fabrication and assembly as well as other engineering projects.

In nature, evolution, particularly that of living beings, has certain characteristics that led to John Holland to start a research in an area that eventually became what today is called genetic algorithms (GA). The ability of a population of chromosomes to explore the search space "in parallel" and combine the best that it has been found through the mechanism of crossing-over (crossover), is intrinsic to the natural evolution and is being exploited by GAs.

From the biological standpoint, the problem centers on the imitation of the mechanism of evolution of living beings. Of a population are more likely to survive and have offspring those organisms best adapted to their environment. To combine two that have desirable characteristics for different aspects can arise both inherit new characteristics.

The premise of GAs, following the publication of the book of Holland "Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems "and the many researchers who use them as metaheuristic for optimization is that it can find approximate solutions to complex computational problems through a process of simulated evolution, in particular a mathematical algorithm implemented on a computer.

In Distributed Artificial Intelligence (DAI) studies collaborative problem solving by a group of distributed agents. Such cooperation is based on neither has the information (expertise, resources, etc) to fully resolve the problem and where an agent is characteristic of being a more or less autonomous entity with its own knowledge and environment and with the ability to interact with their environment and other agents.

Unlike expert systems, called by many "autistic systems" this new research dealing with that they are able to interact with the environment or what is like to be open and flexible.

Moreover, intelligent agents are emerging as one of the AI \u200b\u200bapplications more promising due to its close relation to the Internet (the third revolution in information). Without creating false expectations, we must remember the expert systems and intelligent agents given the advantages that account for network access. They are called to change our way of working to allow move users more comfortable and friendly environment. CONCLUSIONS




Until today, it is possible to develop systems that behave 'effective' in a specific subject, but not to 'emulate' human intelligence. The logic is only one edge of it: common sense, non-monotonic reasoning, recognition and other processes 'smart' are not yet fully resolved.

Chess programs are a tangible demonstration of what might be called an intelligence based on brute force, since their method is the computational speed, allowing you to search large areas and process a enormous amount of information processing speed that exceeds the human brain. Many believe that increasing the calculation speed of computers, which seems to have no limits, should lead to the emergence of so-called intelligent machines, a claim supported by the computers to be able to assess more variants of a problem, whether the game of chess , an estimate of engineering, industrial design or mechanical diagnosis, be able to achieve faster and more efficient solutions, relegating the human background. This argument is based on the accelerated growth that is evident in the computer hardware, while underestimating the development of software ignores the possibilities of the brain.

Today, science is no longer close in on herself and set in around him, understands that the best way to understand how something works in a human being is to understand first the simplest animals. So that science finds the emergent properties of intelligence, as a result of the complex interaction of simple elements and emulates the evolutionary genetic processes in the search for better solutions to really complex problems.


Artificial Intelligence 'conventional' in their attempts to mathematically model the processes of reasoning, could not achieve the dream of its creators, much less the IA followers called 'strong', those who have tried to convince us that thinking machines will be replaced. Begins a new era in Artificial Intelligence. The act of looking to nature will allow the man a step in the drive to achieve truly simulate human intelligence.

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crisis

As already mentioned, the first attempts at artificial intelligence (AI) were based on heuristic search. It is believed the man to solve all problems through heuristic and it was thought that the mind was made up of powerful heuristic devices capable of starting from the general to the particular as was the case with the algorithms computer. Hence the efforts to find a general algorithm based on heuristic principles that were able to solve any problem. One example was the GPS (general problem solver) with which one could prove any mathematical theorem, but was unable to solve problems of an elementary to require a minimum of common sense. This failure led researchers to conclude that the heuristic was not everything and that if the man solved the problem was because he possessed the necessary knowledge for solving.
.
What gave rise to the explosion of knowledge-based systems known as expert systems which due to its narrow domain of problem solving did not meet the expectations of users. This crisis resulted in the symbolist paradigm in AI paradigms which caused the most important being those based on connections and based on cooperation. As our recent interest because they are those related to cooperation between intelligent agents adjusting the model for the structure of an intelligent organization. Another

attempts of artificial intelligence was trying to understand mental states through "toy worlds", a product of lack of knowledge about the nature of intelligence and on the other hand, there was the belief that learning in these domains toy could be extended without difficulty to more complicated problems but because of the complexity of real world problems can not be captured in these reduced models and therefore must be raised directly. Crisis

AI: Artificial Intelligence

has always been seen as a theoretical science, disconnected from reality, while for others they are methods for investigating the brain. But really, what have been your achievements? How has influenced the understanding of the human mind?



The AI \u200b\u200bseemed to be irreconcilable if we analyze through its three branches:
- Study of the human mind.
- Intelligent computer systems.
- Commercial systems based on AI techniques

Study of the Mind: Discovering the mysteries of the human mind, where the machine is used as a laboratory to test theories.

computer systems: computer techniques to analyze the simulation of intelligent behavior

Commercial systems: the machine is a tool through smart programs will anyone in their daily tasks.

Each of these methods denies the other's progress, and in some cases considered that has nothing to do with Artificial Intelligence.

According to this approach there are three areas of research and development of Artificial Intelligence. Study

àCiencia cognitive mind.
computer systems to intelligent machines.
commercial system

Knowledge Engineering Study of the Mind:
is considered a natural science research on the mind trying to understand the mechanisms of human creativity rely on computers to support this group thought emerge two great ideas that have been filled with promises of AI research: strong AI and weak AI.

Strong Artificial Intelligence:
The idea of \u200b\u200bstrong AI has been the dream of almost all researchers in this field. Holds that all mental operations are manifestations of complex sophisticated computational processes, and that it is irrelevant whether such processes are carried out by a human subject, a physical object or an electronic device. It accepts that the human mind may be reproduced or copied to another medium, the brain is considered more support.


IA In exchange for the weak (less radical than the last, and most widespread since the collapse of the idealistic approach of the early years) is not aware computing, and artificial simulation mental activity in any case gives rise to mental phenomena such as pain, recognition, understanding or intention. However accepting the possibility of a simulation of the functional identity involving mind, but never structural identity.
accepted the creation of a sufficiently complex algorithm that could be encoded by a computer program and control a robot in the same way you would a human.


2. Systems:
this group are less concerned about philosophical issues, although its membership is in a weak AI. For them the goal is to build perfect machines, learning to represent and manipulate the knowledge about the real world through a computer and do not care in the least if the thinking of the machines is somehow related to the human way of thinking.

For these researchers the machine is the subject of his research, which is viewed as a whole (soft and hard) and it is intended that such scope and levels of intelligence, probably not made by man, increasingly advanced. And he speculates that the machine replaces the man, given the limitless possibilities of it.

The largest contributions to the field of AI should be in this group in key areas such as: robotics, technology knowledge, distributed AI, Lisp machines, etc.

3. Commercial systems:
applications are developed to solve problems that previously were the domain only of humans. Computer specialists are dedicated to addressing algorithms through unstructured tasks for practical purposes, often using complex data structures.

can be seen as a branch of engineering dedicated to creating commercial products. especially expert systems. For example, expert systems (which will be discussed in item 3).

Each approach creates a work philosophy that makes it incompatible communication between each group of researchers, from their "beliefs" of mind, machines and users. Even see how the machine changed for everyone.

Gone are the days when the IA was seen as a mystical science full of threats, some thought would replace expert systems specialist, today with a more mature without false expectations, remember the 5th Japanese project. Generation of AI techniques will gradually pass imperceptibly, it is more, it appears that intelligence will be expanded and that cooperation between humans and intelligent systems will emerge the bases of knowledge-based societies. Hence

IA abandon the autistic systems (enclosed in itself) to allow open systems to share information intelligently, in turn allowing the combination of different knowledge representation paradigms such as those based on rules, frames (frames ) scripts. And new research issues arise such as:
- The formalization of common sense.
- Learning.
- The integration of different paradigms of intelligence.
- The complete cognitive architecture development.

While Artificial Intelligence bleeds in infighting and define what is and is not Artificial Intelligence, in computing conventional hardware running at a rapid pace in the construction of ever faster machines with more memory and more likely to symbolic calculations, which is forecast to reach the creation of intelligent machines in the short term without Artificial Intelligence.

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Artificial Intelligence Cybernetics

Cybernetics In our day should not be seen either as a science, nor as a discipline, but as an ideological movement, which sought to break with the narrow expertise of each discipline. Cyber \u200b\u200bmovement allowed scientists of many different branches are grouped in groups of research and for the first time, mathematicians, physiologists and specialists in electronics to be integrated into multidisciplinary teams. Its founder Norbert Wiener after years working on mathematical theories and formulas to add some great mathematical apparatus, began working on technical issues such as control of anti-aircraft artillery fire and more efficient transmission of coded messages through communications systems. Wrote a book on cybernetics and control in animals and machines became a success. The stage was set for a new revolution in science.

Cybernetics is based on the study of machines (objects artificial) and their application, which promoted a new scientific revolution based on the interaction of humans with machines at a pace never before seen technological growth and unpredictability. This rate is already being felt and we can say, for example, that a man of the sixteenth century could very well have lived without many surprises in the seventeenth century instead one of the nineteenth century would have great trouble adapting to the twentieth and everything indicates that this acceleration will continue to increase, which will make a person in his old age has to live in a world completely different from your childhood.

With cybernetics machine concept has been changing over the years. After those first mechanical machines which sought to completely or partially replace physical labor of man and animals, have followed others, whose aim is the mechanization of mental labor. Today the machines perform functions that were previously considered characteristic of the human intellect. But perhaps the most important contribution of cybernetics was founded on analogies, hence exogenous characteristic of science, which is given by the interaction with other branches of knowledge and internal assimilation, but mainly by the proposed general theories explain phenomena of the other sciences. For example, cybernetics preferred based on model theory, which places more emphasis on the functional representation of bodies in their structure in the vertical or hierarchical. This, coupled with the search for analogies between the phenomena and not to the reduction of one another led her to become a scientific ideology for understanding the world. Another

contributions of cybernetics is the use of mathematical apparatus, which until then was used almost exclusively as physics and cybernetics in turn was a common discipline to several research areas, which resulted branches of psychology, sociology and biology, could somehow formalize their theories, and even went so far as methods of testing were provided through the creation of machinery for study behaviors, reactions, reflexes, learning, etc.
cyber
When trying to model the structure of an object rather than the structure they had in mind was the reproduction of his work on another structure and is aimed for the artificial object model or exhibit a behavior similar to the original. I say similar because in reality the behavior shown by the models has always been subject to the interpretation of the researcher. These attempts at modeling led researchers to build machines with behavior such as turtles and foxes Grey Walter Albert Ducrocq, which were nothing more than small machines with movement and is guided by the light, others are guided by sound or had some form of radar. But most interesting was the interpretation that was given to the behavior of these ciberanimalitos. For Grey Walter turtles could move from one to another irascible phlegmatic behavior. To Ducrocq, its foxes were able to express feelings of affection between them. I know this to rationalists may seem childish, but is not it interesting, if not true, that human beings continue using your imagination to interpret the phenomena and to keep alive in these times of scientific determinism, its ability to "surprise"?.

Today nobody talks about emotional experiences with turtles, foxes, mice ... The ideas were very simple: any device could show some form of human behavior. That was the dream of the cyber-Play life in all its forms and not just intelligence, as claimed in these times of Artificial Intelligence. And it did not base the Cybernetics his research on the basis that the machine would replace the man, who always saw both as systems with functional analogies, that while they large differences, because agencies own organizational structure and turn-possessed many similarities, hence the cyber gave him, ever greater emphasis on the influence of structure on the mind, but both viewed as a system capable of function as a whole.

live in a world of both social and spiritual crisis, and the desperate man turns his eyes to science and it expects the solution to major problems that overwhelm and cyber-ideology sees a new approach. Here are some of the problems are returning: The education system, health (the prosthesis), death, creativity, consumer goods production, development, understanding the human mind, happiness, evolution (convergence men and machines), new forms of social organization (posthumanity), human enhancement (man-machine connection)

is why Cybernetics passing of the years has been transformed into one of the ideologies of the most influential science, and like Physics and Biology, engenders great promise and for many it becomes the new savior of the world because it has provided one of the richest metaphors and powerful: the so-called computer metaphor or cybernetics, offering a new vision of society and opens the door to a new post-industrial era. Today there are many who think that the machine will replace the man, or those who believe that the human mind can be simulated by a computer, or who dream of creating artificial life.

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posthumanity: Just a dream?

1. The scene: Artificial Intelligence.

During the early years of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is based on the development of programs that were able to perform activities of the human mind, such as proving theorems, playing checkers, chess, creative solutions to unstructured problems based on heuristics or in fields where expertise is required, expert systems. The way to achieve a non-human intelligence to many was too slow and did not meet expectations. Many hoped to have created a non-human intelligence in the 80s. You could say that in the late 80s and early 90s many investigators began to despair, and there were many who left their laboratories most promising lines of work.

Sense of failure that invaded both weak AI as strong AI. For the weak whose goal was to create computer systems that carry out activities requiring intelligence such as expert systems, in which high hopes both researchers and commercial, it was expected that the market was packed with expert systems, including methods Japanese, not to be outdone, threw in his famous 5th project. Generation that is also as yet another attempt. For its part the strong whose purpose is to reproduce in the machine's extensive range, subtlety and depth of human intelligence, I can not meet their goals in less than 20 years have reproduced the human mind and were stuck in very elementary models intelligence, as the world of blocks and in closed systems that were unable to show initiative or failed miserably to any problem that would require common sense.

2. New players: Vinge and Kurzweil
start with the American
Vernor Vinge, who predicts that the creation of entities with greater than human intelligence will be a reality before 2030. The author gives more importance to the computer hardware to its programs and focuses on creating intelligent machines themselves independent emulate the human mind and says that there are other ways different from the IA to reach the superman to which He called intelligence amplification, the same is happening is a natural way, each time improving our ability to access information and communicate. This leads to the conclusion of an intelligence "pop" that may arise from time to time.

Moreover, Vingen, believes that the power and influence of Internet are still very much discussion: "The total anarchy of the worldwide network is evidence of its potential. As you grow connectivity, bandwidth, the size of the storage capacity and processing speed (the ability to communicate in variable bandwidths, including some much higher than voice or written messages). What happens when parts of the ego can be copied and attached to others, when self-consciousness may increase or decrease to approach the nature of the problem under consideration? It's like a biosphere recapitulated as a data processor, but a million times faster and with millions of humans as intelligent agents (we themselves). "

Vingen also proposes a strong superhuman intelligence, which could resemble a Society of Mind (Minsky's idea) with several well-qualified components, where some of these" human equivalent "could be used just to digital signal processing. He adds: "For those who have not changed (those who choose to remain human) achievement is a benign treatment, perhaps giving the appearance of being the owners of a slave demigods (the super-intelligent machines).

reductionism is always in the mind of every scientist and Ray Kurzweil takes the idea of \u200b\u200breverse engineering and to processes of mind. He says: A computer is faster than the human brain in some things, but the trick is to have the richness, subtlety and depth of our thinking. To achieve this will be key intelligence software, based on reverse engineering, copying the human brain works. Our brain circuits are three-dimensional and based on some very complex connections. Scanning the brain can create a replica and artificial three-dimensional circuits using nanotubes (microscopic tubes) we can emulate their performance and create an advanced artificial intelligence. The American professor Andreas Nowatzyk already working on a project to copy the brain of a mouse. It is a first step in what will come next.

As Vingen not limited to technological development which absorbs all human activities. And commitment to technological change that breaks with the slow biological evolution. And he says that many scientists have a linear perspective and see the future as a carbon copy of last retouched. That is a mistake. We are in an exponential growth phase in which a confluence of information technology, biotechnology, quantum physics, nanotechnology ... This century will equal 20,000 years of linear development.

Among its many predictions are scanning the brain and then install it on other non-biological and how to achieve total immersion virtual. And he thinks that virtual reality environments integrate all the senses at the same time be able to improve intelligence, you can think faster, more complex thought and tele load knowledge, and dreams of these virtual reality environments between 2030 and 2040 to compete with real environments.

3. He thinks the father of Artificial Intelligence
Minsky who was one of the founders of AI, along with John McCarthy and leader of the "ragged" with Schank (and they were called to the researchers who defended the represetanción semantic versus the "neat" that advocated a logical representation) where he defended the idea of \u200b\u200ban AI as close as possible to human thought and opposed to the cold formality of logic, it being now one of the champions of the replacement of man by machines. Minsky

who can not hide his disappointment with artificial intelligence said: "The IA is in a laughable, because we can make machines to do the kind of thing that makes an" expert ", but still can not get do most of things you can do a 4 years. While acknowledging that the IA is jam, announces that it has only been stopped for a moment. He says: By 1980 the progress stopped in some way and the people scattered in other directions to try to find some way to return.

Minsky in his old age, seems to give more importance to the immortality that own ethical sense of what it proposes, then say: "So far we have tended to see ourselves as an end product of evolution, but evolution has not ceased . The truth is that we are evolving more rapidly, but the slow Darwinian process. It is time we begin to think of our new identities that are emerging. We can begin to design systems based on an ingenious kind of unnatural selection, which can take advantage of acquired characteristics. "He adds:" We in a primitive age in which machines have no prospect of the future, or "basic family values." And yes, I have to insist that this knowledge will lead to the extension of our pitiful life time. "

With regard to the ethical sense of their ideas, says it's so bad that if he insists he's going to be worse. And he proposes, not without reason, that ethics must come from people who know that. He adds: Do not think it's good to ask scientists to understand the consequences of their work because they can not. And to justify it by saying: They spend all their time thinking at work, so I do not think about ethics or consequences.
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And I conclude with a paragraph my essay "post-humanism and posthumanistic?" Published by Social Sciences in 1996: In the future there will be new trends based on the cooperation of all intelligences (nobody knows how many or how they will be), and there will be new professions that have to do with non-human intelligences, and above all, I think, will intensify the studies on human intelligence, psychology, neurophysiology, anthropology, sociology, parapsychology and others. It is completely rational to think that the man with the super intelligence of the machines try to understand their own humanity and feel more than ever the need of their own brain (which would be irrational man devoted to worship as gods machines). The machines will in turn serve man as a driver of new creative forces, east to avoid having to engage in routine activities ... more time to give a more efficient use your brain, or is the man so stupid that instead of improving its educational system increasingly looking to be creative, cling as the only solution to the perfection of the machines, when in fact both can be better and they both machines and humans depend on the individual's ability as a social being.

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Brief History of Artificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligence

The history of AI can frame it in three stages: - Years 50-70: Romantic Era, Years 70-90: Pragmatics .- was 90-years now: It was Realista.Años: 1956 - Newell and Simon developed The Logic Theorist, considered by many the first program IA1957 - the first version is presented Program General troubleshooting. It aims to demonstrate any kind of problema.1958 - McCarthy creates language LISP (Listing Processing), considered a language of IAFinales 50 - Frank Rosemblatt, Perceptron, the first attempt to simulate the neural computation to perform the 60 tasks complejas.En - Joseph Weizembaum develops the Eliza program, considered the first system in the field of Language Processing Natural.1965 - It develops the first successful expert system DENDRAL, Stanford University, system oriented to the determination of the chemical structure of a compound and at MIT, developed the Macsyma, Expert System oriented to solving complex math problems by the use of integration and simplification algebráica.Años 70 - David Marr proposes new theories of Computer Vision, for example, how to distinguish a desired image in the nuances of it, color, edges, texture and forma.Años 70 - It develops the first system for Natural Language Understanding, implemented by Terry Winograd, a researcher at MIT, the SHRDLU, which is integrated a robot must obey orders humanas.1972 - the first implementation is developed language PROLOG (Programming in Logic) by Frenchman Alain Colmerauer, programming language for AI, based on predicate calculus logic (Horn clauses ) and the Resolution Principle. This language was considered by the Japanese, the language of the machines of the future.

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artificial intelligence is the creation of programs to simulate human intelligence.
expert systems being one of the most important applications. Currently it is not only to develop complex knowledge bases but also in the development of small robots to be learning environment